My first and most profound gratitude I owe
Almighty God by whose strength alone I have been able
noctes vigilare serenas. I am greatly indebted to
the Department of Classics: to Dr. Booth, thanks to
whose patience, understanding and guidance this work
has reached completion. His advice and suggestions have
provided a kind of mould in which the substance of my
learning has taken this form; to Dr. Verstraete under
whose direction I have followed most of my courses; to
Dr. Vellek for the overseeing of my programme of
studies.
I have also benefited a great deal in the
development of my honours programme from courses in
other departments and from stimulating exchange with
fellow students, and for these too I am grateful. I
thank also my typist, Robyn Fisher, who, though
unfamiliar with the Latin language, worked through the
manuscript with marvellous ease. And last but not least
I express my most affectionate gratitude to my wife for
her patient and loving support through all those noctes
serenas.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION ................
CHAPTER I: DE NATURA DEORUM ........
EPICUREANISM ...............
Existence of the Gods ..........
Nature of the Gods .............
Nature .........................
Humankind .....................
AGAINST EPICUREANISM .............
Existence of the Gods ..........
Nature of the Gods .............
Nature .........................
Humankind .....................
STOICISM ...................
Existence of the Gods ..........
Nature of the Gods or God ......
Nature .........................
Humankind .....................
AGAINST STOICISM ................
Existence of the Gods ..........
Nature of the Gods .............
Nature ........................
Humankind ................
CONCLUSION .................
NOTES ......................
CHAPTER II: OCTAVIUS ............
The Case for Paganism ..........
The Academy ....................
Stoicism .......................
Epicureanism ...................
The Case for Christianity ......
CONCLUSION ......................
NOTES ...........................
APPENDIX ........................
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................
ABSTRACT
Early Christians, in dialogue with pagans, did
not shrink from using pagan reason to support their
faith. Paul himself, addressing Greeks, spoke of the
teaching of nature(1 Cor. 11), and said that God's
invisible qualities His power and divinity, can be seen
in creation (Rom. 1). And on the Areopagus he appealed
to the Athenians by quoting from one of their poets.
This is one of the reasons why early Christian
apologists turned to pre-Christian philosophical
writings to find acceptable proofs for their faith.
However, almost always, they maintained that all proof
must be interpreted on the basis of biblical
revelation.
In this study we have followed the above-named
connection, between pre-Christian and Christian
thinking, in the influence of Cicero's De Natura
Deorum on the Christian Octavius. Isolation of the
various arguments of the former enables us to note
the significant re-occurrence of many of them in the
latter; many of the tenets of pagan philosophy are
thus seen to have been adapted to serve a Christian
end.
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INTRODUCTION
As Cicero notes in the introduction to his De Natura Deorum, opinions about the divine nature are among
the most important to be debated by humankind,
particularly because there is so much uncertainty about
them. Around the turn of the third century A.D. a work,
the Octavius, was compiled purportedly by a certain
Minucius Felix in commemoration of his friend Octavius,
who had persuaded a pagan to become a Christian in a
long discussion set in Ostia. The work itself, showing
certain affinities with Tertullian's work, may have
originated in Africa.
To judge by its resemblances this work seems to
have been modeled on Cicero's De Natura Deorum, written
some three hundred and fifty years earlier, about the
middle of the first century B.C. Both works show a triad
of speakers, representing two opposed points of view
(the Epicurean and Stoic philosophies in the earlier,
the pagan and Christian faiths in the latter) presided
over by a judge. Another similarity is that the first
system (Epicureanism, paganism)is given considerably
less attention in each work than the second one.
Possibly the reason behind this is that less material
was available to the compilers on the first systems, or
that the compilers, in their bias, were more interested
in presenting information on the second, or some
combination of these two possibilities. Cicero ends his
work saying that, in his opinion, the Stoics were closest to the truth,
and Minucius Felix, himself a Christian, naturally
sided with Octavius.
The merit of these works is that they give a
bird's- eye view of the two major streams of their day.
Cicero's work provides us with an important, and unique,
record of a long tradition of debate within the
skeptical Academy; the Octavius gives us a significant
glimpse into the kind of debate which succeeded that of
the pagan schools as Christianity came gradually into
prominence. It is interesting to note that when Paul was
in Athens (Acts 17) he found there Epicureans and
Stoics. In Ephesus (Acts 19) the devotees of Artemis
rose up against the Christians. These two incidents
show the historic relevancy of the confrontations as we
have them in the De Natura Deorum and the Octavius
respectively. Paul's use elsewhere (e.g. Acts 17; Rom.
1; 1 Cor. 11) of pagan teachings, and his referring to
nature, in addressing gentiles provided serviceable
precedent for the use Minucius Felix and others would
make of the pagan philosophies in the service of the
Christian faith.
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There is an important difference between the two
books. Cicero's work contains a severe criticism of
both major schools by Cotta, who plays the role of
judge. But Minucius, who is both compiler and judge,
plays no such major role, the reason being, as has been stated, that
he was a Christian himself. Another natural reason,
is that it is difficult to conceive of something like
an Academy standing between paganism and Christianity.
It simply did not exist. One was either Christian or
non-Christian, the rise of Christianity having a
profound effect on the polarization of positions.
Both works indulge in calumny, and idiosyncratic
opinion. In this study we have isolated the relevant
statements of both works, with this difference that, in
the case of the Octavius, we deal only with those tenets
that have direct resemblance to their counterparts in
the De Natura Deorum. This will enable us to pinpoint
the extent to which a Christian thinker such as Minucius
Felix has drawn upon a pagan work such as the De Natura
Deorum as a source. This in turn gives us an impression
of the importance of pre-Christian philosophies for
early Christian writers in dialogue with their pagan
counterparts.
CHAPTER I DE
NATURA
DEORUM
The De Natura Deorum
gives a presentation of
Epicureanism, and Stoicism, and a criticism of both
by Cotta, who represents the skeptical Academy, which
found it easier to criticize than to declare.
Although both the Epicureans and the Stoics were
materialists, believing atomic matter and not purely
immaterial soul to be the prime basis of existence, they
held considerably different views about the role of the
divinity. The former group could be called deists in a
sense (excepting the deist conception of creation), and
the latter pantheists. Hence stem the major differences
between their respective teachings on physics,
psychology, and theology.
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In this chapter we shall give those Epicurean and
Stoic theological statements that occur in Cicero's De
Natura Deorum. Cotta's counter-arguments are divided
into two sections, each of which follows the position of
the two other schools, first Epicureanism, then
Stoicism.
EPICUREANISM
The Epicureans often have been cast as atheists; however, from their statements it is clear that they were primarily deists. They, in turn, mocked the cherished beliefs of their opponents. Both schools were guilty of name-calling, slander, and all sorts of abuse. In the present work this has been omitted as irrelevant.
Existence of the Gods
Epicurus maintains that the gods exist because all mankind has a natural idea about them.
Solus enim vidit primum esse deos, quod in
omnium animis eorum notionem inpressisset
ipsa natura (I 43).
Any such idea is called prolepsis and serves as the
basis of all inquiry and debate.
Quam appellat prolhyin Epicurus, id est anteceptam
animo rei quandam informationem, sine qua nec
intellegi quicquam nec quaeri nec disputari possit (I
43).
The belief, then, that the gods exist has not been
determined by any authority, custom, or law but
derives from the universal agreement of humankind.
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Cum enim non instituto aliquo aut more aut
lege sit opinio constituta maneatque ad unum
omnium firma consensio, intellegi necesse est
esse deos (I 44).
Nature of the Gods
The natural impression of the Gods pictures them as blissful and eternal.
Quod beatum aeternumque sit id nec habere
ipsum negotii quicquam nec exhibere alteri,
itaque neque ira neque gratia teneri quod
quae talia essent imbecilia omnia (I
45).
The natural conception of the gods depicts them only
as possessing human form.
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Hanc igitur habemus, ut deos beatos et inmortales
putemus (I 45) .
From this it can be deduced that the
gods do not have any difficulty, or cause any for
others, wherefore they entertain neither wrath nor
grace, for such feelings are only weaknesses.
Nam a natura habemus omnes omnium gentium
speciem nullam aliam nisi humanam deorum (I
46).
This satisfies also the highest esthetic standards,
since no form is more beautiful than the human one.
Quae conpositio membrorum, quae
conformatio liniamentorum, quae figura, quae
species humana potest esse pulchrior (I 47)?
It also satisfies logic, for it is fitting that the
highest being must possess the most beautiful form as
well.
Nam cum praestantissumam naturam, vel quia
beata est vel quia sempiterna, convenire
videatur eandem esse pulcherrimam (I 47)?
Notwithstanding, they are not corporeal, but only look like the
physical body; they do not have real blood but
something similar to it.
Nec tamen ea species corpus est, sed quasi corpus, nec habet sanguinem, sed quasi sanguinem (I 4 9) . 1
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Without this kind of corporeality, the gods would not
be capable of any sensing, nor of pragmatic wisdom, nor
of pleasure, for all these concepts are included in the
natural conception of the gods.
Quod vero sine corpore ullo deum vult esse ut Graeci dicunt swvmaton, id quale esse possit intellegi non potest: careat enim sensu necesse est, careat etiam prudentia, careat voluptate; quae omnia una cum
deorum notione comprehendimus (I 30).
for sensing can only take place when a being is hit
upon by atoms.
. . . neque sensum omnino quo non ipsa
natura pulsa sentiret (I 26) .
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Divine nature is solely devoted to its wisdom and
virtue, and is completely certain that it will always
enjoy perfect and everlasting pleasures in its freedom
from any task.
Nihil enim agit, nullis occupationibus est
inplicatus, nulla opera molitur, sua sapientia
et virtute gaudet, habet exploratum fore se
semper cum in maximis tum in aeternis
voluptatibus (I 51) .
This is consistent with the proposition that happiness
consists of security of mind and complete freedom from
all occupations.
Nos autem beatam vitam in animi securitate et
in omnium vacatione munerum ponimus (I 53).
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All these qualities of the gods are not conveyed
to us through our senses but directly to our minds.
For we experience images, which are caused by an
immense flow of atoms, which lead our attention
directly to the gods.
These images bestow both pleasure and
understanding of the nature of the gods, because of
what we perceive.2
Imaginibus similitudine et transitione
perceptis, cum infinita simillumarum imaginum
series ex innumerabilibus individuis existat
et ad deos adfluat, cum maximis voluptatibus
in eas imagines mentem intentam infixamque
nostram intellegentiam capere quae sit et
beata natura et aeterna (I 49).
According to the principle of isonomia, which means
equal arrangement, there are as many immortals as
mortals. This principle of distribution is based on the
principle of infinity, which has the property that in
totality all things are divided into opposite parts.
Summa vero vis infinitatis et magna ac
diligenti contemplatione dignissima est, in qua
intellegi necesse est eam esse naturam ut omnia
omnibus paribus paria respondeant. Hanc
Æsonomivan appellat Epicurus, id est aequabilem
tributionem. Ex hac igitur illud efficitur, si
mortalium tanta multitudo sit, esse inmortalium
non minorem (I 50).
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Nature
The world has been made by nature itself without
the need of any intelligence. Creating is so easy that
nature will create, is creating, and has created worlds
without number.
Natura effectum esse mundum, nihil opus
fuisse fabrica, tamque eam rem esse facilem quam
vos effici negatis sine divina posse sollertia,
ut innummerabilis natura mundos effectura sit
efficiat effecerit (I 53).
Space consists of void in which an infinite number of
atoms fly and come together to form all kinds of shapes.
Hac igitur inmensitate latitudinum longitudinum
altitudinum infinita vis innumerabilium volitat
atomorum, quae interiecto inani cohaerescunt tamen
inter se et aliae alias adprehendentes
continuantur;
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ex quo efficiuntur eae rerum formae et figurae .
. .(I 54) .
According to the principle of isonomia, there
are just as many destructive causes as preservative
ones.
Et si quae interimant innumerabilia sint,
etiam ea quae conservent infinita esse
debere (I 50)..
The world is not eternal for the simple reason
that everything has a beginning and an end.
Hunc censes primis ut dicitur labris gustasse
physiologiam, id est naturae rationem, qui quicquam
quod ortum sit putet aeternum esse posse? Quae est
enim coagmentatio non dissolubilis? Aut quid est cui
principium aliquod sit, nihil sit extremum (I 20)?
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Humankind
As with the gods, so also with man, happiness
consists of security of mind and complete freedom from
all occupations.
Nos autem beatam vitam in animi securitate et in
omnium vacatione munerum ponimus (I 53).
Wise men can arrange life in such a way as to minimize
troubles and maximize happiness. Fools neither can escape trouble, nor endure it. Therefore folly is the most miserable thing.
Cum omnes stulti sint sine dubio miserrimi,
maxime quod stulti sunt (miserium enim stultitia
quid possumus dicere?) , deinde quod ita multa Sunt
incommoda in vita ut ea sapientes commodorum
conpensatione leniant, stulti nec vitare venientia
possint nec ferre praesentia(1 23).
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Fear is an enemy of happiness. It is, therefore,
important to see that the gods take no interest in us
nor consider anything of their concern. Given the nature
of their happiness, we are not responsible to them for
our deeds. A good understanding of this takes away
superstitious terrors and any fear of the gods.
Quas vos effici posse sine follibus et
incudibus non putatis, itaque inposuistis in
cervicibus nostris sempiternum dominum, quem dies
et noctes timeremus: quis enim non timeat omnia
providentem et cogitantem et animadvertentem et
omnia ad se pertinere putantem curiosum et plenum
negotii deum (I 54)?
His terroribus ab Epicuro soluti et in
libertatem vindicati nec metuimus eos quos
intellegimus nec sibi fingere ullam molestiam
nec alteri quaerere (I 56).
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As far as worship is concerned, we pay homage to
nature, which is exalted and excellent.
Et pie sancteque colimus naturam excellentem
atque praestantem (I 56).
AGAINST EPICUREANISM
The arguments against Epicureanism, as well as
those against Stoicism, are put in the mouth of a
certain Cotta, a Roman high priest and pontiff. Cotta
did not embrace the beliefs of either school, and though
he seems to have been a confused doubter, he made some
very keen observations and criticisms. That is what
makes him the eloquent spokesman of the Academy. At
certain points, one could get the impression that he was
a down-right skeptic. This is not true, however, and one
must be aware that his skepticism is solely a reaction
to the Epicurean and Stoic presentation of the truth.
His own views do show a longing for the real truth, and
that is what he wonders about all the time. It must be
concluded that his remarks expose a variety of
weaknesses on the parts of both major schools.
Existence of the Gods
The statement that belief in the gods'
existence is universal, is not valid for the
following reasons: firstly, not all the beliefs of
foreign peoples are known, and
secondly, there are many atheists and agnostics (I
62,63)
Nature of the Gods
The concept of happiness is one of a life that
clearly languishes away with idleness.
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Nam de vita beata nihil repugno, quam tu ne in
eo quidem esse censes nisi plane otio langueat (I
67). -
The conception of the gods' happiness as cons
isting only in selfcontemplation is not a true
conception of happiness.
"Cogitat" inquiunt "adsidue beatum esse; habet enim nihil aliud quod agitet in mente.". . .
Ita nec beatus est vester deus ... (I 114) .
In fact, the notion of the gods' happiness is worse than
that of a spoilt child, who at least wants to enjoy some
active play (I 102). It is a projection of a subjective
opinion rather than real knowledge of the gods.
Anthropomorphism is a misconception for every
species considers its own form unique. According to this
reasoning an eagle or lion or dolphin would not
prefer any other form over its own (I 77). Moreover, if
the gods are superior to men in everything else, then
they are also superior in form.
Cur igitur cum ceteris rebus inferioressimus
forma pares sumus (I 96)?
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Anthropomorphism also runs into the following problems: If the gods are entirely free from bodily imperfection,
then they are all alike. In that case, no recognition is
possible. If not, then there must be degrees of beauty.
And in that case, not all gods attain to the highest
standard (I 80). The logic that reason can only exist
in human form does not hold (I 89). Moreover, why would
the gods have a human form if they have no need of
hands, feet, and intestines (I 92)? Finally, it is not
necessary to consider the consequences of stating that
the gods are male and female (I 95) .
Atomism is inconsistent with divine
immortality, for if they are made of atoms they cannot be
eternal, since it was argued that everything has a
beginning and an end (I 68) . Also, it is argued that
the theory about the continuous flow of images is not
well defined at all. A person could use it to claim that
everything is eternal (I 107).
The theory of the gods' quasi corporeality cannot
be understood by anybody, not even the Epicureans (I
74).
Nature
Atoms do not exist. But even if they did, then
they probably would be only capable of coming into
contact with one another. They could not create form
shape, colour, or life.
Quae etiamsi essent, quae nulla sunt, pellere se
ipsa et agitari inter se concursu
fortasse possent, formare figurare colorare
animare non possent (I 110).
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There is no void, all space is filled with matter, and there is no such thing as an indivisible body.
Nihil est enim . . . quod vacet corpore;corporibus autem omnis obsidetur locus; ita nullum
inane, nihil esse individuum potest (I 65).
The Epicurean belief that freedom of will derives
from the spontaneous concourse of atoms, is a device
invented to escape determinism. According to this
device, atoms, while traveling vertically downward by
the force of gravity, make a minute motion to one side.
Velut Epicurus cum videret, si atomi ferrentur in locum inferiorem suopte pondere,
nihil fore innostra potestate, quod esset earum
motus certus et necessarius, invenit quo modo
necessitatem effugeret, quod videlicet
Democritum fugerat: ait atomum, cum pondere et
gravitate directo deorsus feratur, declinare
paululum (I 69).
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Also, the principle of isonomia is an escape theory and
is understood as meaning that because there is mortal
substance, there must also be immortal substance. The
principle is discredited by stating the mock reasoning
that because there are mortal people, there are also
some that are immortal, and because there are people
born on land, there are people born in the water. As far
as the equilibrium between destructive and preservative
forces is concerned, this only would maintain what
exists (I 109) .
Humankind
Epicurean logic is a total failure since it denies
the necessity of a disjunctive proposition.
Hoc dicere turpius est quam illud quod vult non
posse defendere. Idem facit contra dialecticos; a
quibus cum traditum sit in omnibus diiunctionibus in
quibus 'aut etiam aut non' poneretur alterum utrum
esse verum, pertimuit ne si concessum esset huius
modi aliquid 'aut vivet cras aut non vivet Epicurus,'
alterutrum fieret necessarium: totum hoc 'aut etiam
aut non' negavit esse necessarium; quo quid dici
potuit obtusius (I 70)?
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Epicurus stated that all sensation is true, since
he was afraid that if it were admitted that one could be
false, all could be false (I 70).
The deistic notion leaves no reason for man to
worship the gods (I 115, 116), whereas the Egyptians and
barbarians even deify different animals for some useful
service that they render (T 101).
In the Epicurean theology, there is no place left
either for homage, or for piety-- justice towards the
gods -- or for holiness -- the science of divine
worship.
Quae porro pietas ei debetur a quo nihil
acceperis? Aut quid omnino cuius nullum meritumsit
ei deberi potest? Est enim pietas iustitia
adversum deos; cum quibus quid potest nobis
esseiuris, cum homini nulla cum deo sit
communitas? Sanctitas autem est scientia colendorum
deorum; qui quam ob rem colendi sint non intellego nullonec
accepto ab iis nec sperato bono (I 116).
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Epicurus merely tried to avoid popular hostility in
holding to some view about the gods, whereas, for
himself he did not believe in them at all (I 123).
STOICISM
It has been said already that the Stoics were
pantheists. This is apparent throughout the statements
of their belief. For them everything centers around
God, who is some kind of a soul that permeates the whole
world. Constantly, they employ the teleological argument
that the world shows such a perfect design, that only an
all-powerful Being could have created it. They attempt
to show this in relation to all aspects of life.
Existence of the Gods
That the gods exist is clear from various records
we have about their epiphanies. This is also why, among
all nations, reverence for the gods and respect for
religion is growing.
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Itaque et in nostro populo et in ceteris deorum
cultus religionumque sanctitates exsistunt in
dies maiores atque meliores, idque evenit
non temere nec casu, sed quod et praesentes saepe
divim suam declarant (II 5, 6).
Another proof is that people everywhere have a clear
idea of the gods, which is strengthened with every new
generation, while ungrounded beliefs, such as about the
hippocentaur, have been fading away. Grounded beliefs,
of course, concern things that exist, whereas ungrounded
beliefs concern things that do not exist.
Quod nisi cognitum conprehensumque
animis haberemus, non tam stabilis opinio
permaneretnec confirmaretur diuturnitate temporis
nec una cum saeclis aetatibusque hominum
inveterari potuisset. Etenim videmus ceteras
opiniones fictas atque vanas diuturnitate
extabuisse. Quis enim Hippocentaurum fuisse aut
Chimaeram putat . . . (II 5)?
Itaque inter omnis omnium gentium
summa constat; omnibus enim innatum est et in
animoquasi insculptum esse deos. Quales sint
variumest, esse nemo negat (II 13).
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The art of divination is evidence for the
existence of the gods. Empires have been won by
religious commanders. However, due to negligence, this
gift has fallen into contempt. Misinterpretations are
human mistakes.
Magna augurum auctoritas; quid, haruspicum ars
nonne divina? Haec et innumerabilia ex eodem genere qui videat nonne cogatur
confiteri deos esse? Quorum enim interpretes
sunt eos ipsosesse certe necesse est; deorum
autem interpretessunt; deos igitur esse
fateamur (II 12).
Quorum exitio intellegi potest eorum imperiis rem publicam amplificatam qui religionibus paruissent (II 8).
Sed neglegentia nobilitatis augurii disciplina omissa veritas auspiciorum spreta
est, speciestantum retenta (II 9) .
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Signa ostenduntur a dis rerum futurarum;
in his si qui erraverunt, non deorum
natura sedhominum coniectura peccavit (II
12) .
The power of the gods can also be deduced from the
abundance of natural blessings which we enjoy, and from
various awe-inspiring events.
. . . ex magnitudine commodorum quae percipiuntur caeli temperatione fecunditate terrarum aliarumque commoditatum conplurium copia . . .
quae terreret animos
fulminibus tempestatibus nimbis
nivibus grandinibus vastitate etc.(II
14).
But the most powerful reason for belief is the fact
that the whole universe shows design. Nobody would
contest that a house or the horary of Posidonius
presupposes a designer. So the world shows the power of
a superhuman agency .
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. . . causam esse eamque vel maximam aequabilitatem motus conversionumque
caeli, solis lunae siderumque omnium
distinctionem